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Morpheme is the minimal meaningful or meaningless syntactic unit and it can’t be divided further. Morph means shape. Morpheme is essentially an abstract construct. Morphology is the study of morphemes and the research on words. Morpheme helps the open word classes to change into another. We have discussed open and closed word classes in the next chapter.
There are two main categories of morphemes: free and bound morphemes, free morphemes can occur alone and bound morphemes must occur with another morpheme.
An example of a free morpheme is “slow”, and an example of a bound morpheme is ‘-ly’. It is bound because it must be attached to another free morpheme to produce a meaningful word.
Free morpheme: slow
Bound morpheme: ‘-ly’
Word: slowly.
This group of bound morphemes includes prefix, suffix, infix, and circumfix. Prefixes are added to the beginning of another morpheme or stem, suffixes are added to the end, infixes are inserted into the middle of the stem, and circumfixes are attached to another morpheme at the beginning and end. Prefix, suffix and infix together are called affix. And the process through which prefix, suffix and infix are added to a free morpheme is called ‘affixation’.
Following are examples of each of these:
Prefix: remake ( here ‘re’)
Suffix: necessarily (here ‘ly’)
Infix: -um- added to fikas (strong) produces fumikas (to be strong) in Bontoc
Circumfix: ge- and -t to lieb (love) produces geliebt (loved) in German.
There are two categories of affixes: derivational and inflectional.
The main difference between the two is that derivational affixes are added to morphemes to form new words that may or may not be the same part of speech and inflectional affixes are added to the end of an existing word for purely grammatical reasons. In English there are only eight total inflectional affixes: S (for third person, used with verb), Ed, Ing, En, S (for plural), ‘s (possessive), Er (competitive), Est (superlative).
There can be two groups of words:
Lexical (or content) and function (or grammatical) words.
Lexical words are called open class words and include nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. New words can regularly be added to this group. Function words, or closed class words, are conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns; and new words cannot be (or are very rarely) included in this class.
In open classes we use morphemes to transform one to another word class by adding something to their end, in general ‘-ing’, ‘-ed’, ‘-ly’, ‘-able’ etc.
Some most used prefix
prefix + verb = verb
re- again or back, e.g, restructure, revisit, reappear, rebuild, refinance
dis– reverses the meaning of the verb, e.g. disappear, disallow, disarm, disconnect, discontinue
over– too much, e.g. overbook, oversleep, overwork
un– reverses the meaning of the verb, e.g. unbend, uncouple, unfasten
mis– badly or wrongly, e.g. mislead, misinform, misidentify
out– more or better than others, e.g. outperform, outbid
be– make or cause, e.g. befriend, belittle
co– together / co-exist, e.g. co-operate, co-own
de– do the opposite of, e.g. devalue, deselect
fore– earlier, before, e.g. foreclose, foresee
inter– between, e.g. interact, intermix, interface
pre– before, e.g. pre-expose, prejudge, pretest
sub– under/below, e.g. subcontract, subdivide
trans– across, over, e.g. transform, transcribe, transplant
under– not enough, e.g. underfund, undersell, undervalue, underdeveloped
prefix + noun right = noun
-anti: against, e.g. anticlimax, antidote, antithesis
-auto: self, e.g. autobiography, automobile
-bi: two, e.g. bilingualism, biculturalism, bi-metalism
-co: joint, e.g. co-founder, co-owner, co-descendant
-counter: against, e.g. counter-argument, counter-example, counter-proposal
-dis: the converse of, e.g. discomfort, dislike
-ex: former, e.g. ex-chairman, ex-hunter
-hyper: extreme, e.g. hyperinflation, hypersurface
-in: the converse of, e.g. inattention, incoherence, incompatibility
-in: e.g. inside, inpatient,
-inter: between, e.g. interaction, inter-change, interference
-kilo: thousand, e.g. kilobyte
-mal: bad, e.g. malfunction, maltreatment, malnutrition
-mega: million, e.g. megabyte
-mis: wrong, e.g. misconduct, misdeed, mismanagement
-mini: small, e.g. mini-publication, mini-theory
-mono– one, e.g. monosyllable, monograph, monogamy
-neo: new, e.g. neo-colonialism, neo-impressionism
-out: separate, e.g. outbuilding,
-poly: many, e.g.polysyllable
-pseudo: false, e.g. pseudo-expert
-re: again, e.g. re-organisation, re-assessment, re-examination
-semi: half, e.g. semicircle, semi-darkness
-sub: below, e.g. subset, subdivision
-super: more than, above, e.g. superset, superimposition, superpowers
-sur: over and above, e.g. surtax
-tele: distant, e.g. telecommunications,
-tri: three, e.g. tripartism
-ultra: beyond, e.g. ultrasound
-under: below, too little, e.g. underpayment, under-development, undergraduate
-vice: deputy, e.g. vice-president
Some most useful suffix:
-ise: e.g. stabilise, characterise, symbolise, visualise, specialise
-ate: e.g. differentiate, liquidate, pollinate, duplicate, fabricate
-fy: e.g. classify, exemplify, simplify, justify
-en: e.g. awaken, fasten, shorten, moisten
-tion/-sion: e.g. alteration, demonstration, expansion, inclusion, admission
-er: e.g. advertiser, driver, computer, silencer
-ment: e.g. development, punishment, unemployment
-ant/-ent: e.g. assistant, consultant, student
-age: e.g. breakage, wastage, package
-al: e.g. denial, proposal, refusal, dismissal
-ence/-ance: e.g. preference, dependence, interference
attendance, acceptance, endurance
-ery/-ry: e.g. bribery, robbery, misery, refinery, bakery
-er: e.g. astronomer, geographer
-ism: e.g. Marxism, Maoism, Thatcherism
-ship: e.g. friendship, citizenship, leadership
-age: e.g. baggage, plumage
-ity: e.g. ability, similarity, responsibility, curiosity
-ness: e.g. darkness, preparedness, consciousness
-cy: e.g. urgency, efficiency, frequency
-al: e.g. central, political, national, optional, professional
-ent: e.g. different, dependent, excellent
-ive: e.g. attractive, effective, imaginative, repetitive
-ous: e.g. continuous, dangerous, famous
-ful: e.g. beautiful, peaceful, careful
-less: e.g. endless, homeless, careless, thoughtless
-able: e.g. drinkable, countable, avoidable
Some useful medical suffix:
-a: noun ending, no meaning e.g. leukoderma
-ac: pertaining to, e.g. cardiac
-ad: toward. e.g. dorsad
-algia: pain, e.g. myalgia
-amnios: amnion, amniotic fluid, e.g oligohydramnios
-apheresis: removal, e.g. plasmapheresis
-ar: pertaining to, e.g. appendicular
-ary: pertaining to, e.g. coronary
-asthenia: weakness, e.g. Myasthenia gravis
-carcinoma: cancerous tumour, e.g. adenocarcinoma
-cele: hernia, protrusion, swellinge.g. hydrocele
-centesis: surgical puncture to aspirate fluid, e.g. amniocentesis
-crine: to secrete, e.g. exocrine
-cyesis: pregnancy, e.g. pseudocyesis
–cyte: cell, e.g. leukocyte
-desis: surgical fixation, fusion, e.g.arthrodesis
–drome: run, running, e.g. syndrome
-e: noun ending, no meaning, e.g. neonate
-eal: pertaining to, e.g. esophageal
-ectasis: stretching out, dilation, expansion, e.g. bronchiectasis
-ectomy: excision, surgical removal, cut out, e.g. gastrectomy
-emesis: vomiting, e.g. hematemesis
-emia: in the blood, e.g. anemia
-esis: condition, e.g. diuresis
-gen: substance or agent that produces or causes, e.g. teratogen
-genic: producing, originating, causing, e.g. carcinogenic
-gram: the record, radiographic image, e.g. electrocardiogram
-graph: instrument used to record; the record, e.g. electrocardiograph
-graphy: process of recording, radiographic imaging, e.g. electrocardiography
-ia: condition of, diseased state, abnormal state, e.g. tachycardia
-iasis: condition, e.g. choledocholithiasis
-iatrist: specialist, e.g. psychiatrist
-iatry: specialty, treatment, e.g. psychiatry
-ic: pertaining to, e.g. cardiac
-ictal: seizure, attack, e.g. postictal
-ior: pertaining to, e.g. anterior
-ism: state of, e.g. hyperthyroidism
-itis: inflammation, e.g. colitis
-logist: specialist who studies and treats, e.g. oncologist
-logy: study of cardiology
–lysis: separating, loosening, dissolution, e.g. thrombolysis
-malacia: softening, e.g. chondromalacia
-megaly: enlarged, enlargement, e.g. gastromegaly
-meter: instrument used to measure, e.g. thermometer
-metry: measuring, process of measuring, e.g. spirometry
-oid: resembling, e.g. lipoid
-oma: tumour, swelling, e.g. melanoma
-opia: vision, e.g. diplopia
-opsy: viewing, process of viewing, e.g. biopsy
-osis: abnormal condition, increased number (blood), e.g. erythrocytosis
-ous: pertaining to, e.g. intravenous
-paresis: slight paralysis, e.g. hemiparesis
-pathy: disease, e.g. polyneuropathy
-penia: abnormal reduction in number, e.g. erythrocytopenia
-pepsia: digestion, e.g. dyspepsia
-pexy: surgical fixation, suspension, e.g. colpopexy
-phagia: swallowing, eating, e.g. dysphagia
-phobia: aversion, abnormal fear, e.g. photophobia
-physis: growth, e.g. symphysis
-plasia: formation, development, growth, e.g. hyperplasia
-plasm: growth, substance, formation, e.g. cytoplasm
-plasty: surgical, repair, e.g. rhinoplasty
-plegia: paralysis, e.g. ophthalmoplegia
-pnea: breathing, e.g. dyspnea
-poiesis: formation, e.g. leukopoiesis
-ptosis: prolapse, drooping, e.g.nephroptosis
-rrhage: excessive bleeding, e.g. hemorrhage
-rrhagia: excessive bleeding, e.g. rhinorrhagia
-rrhaphy: repairing, suturing, e.g. cholecystography
-rrhea: discharge, flow, e.g. rhinorrhea
-rrhexis: rupture, e.g. amniorrhexis
–salpinx: fallopian tube, uterine tube, e.g. pyosalpinx
-sarcoma: malignant tumour, e.g. rhabdomyosarcoma
–schisis: split, fissure, e.g. cranioschisis
-sclerosis: hardening, e.g. arteriosclerosis
–scope: instrument used for visual examination, e.g. hysteroscope
–scopic: pertaining to visual examination, e.g. pelviscopic
-scopy: process of visually examining, e.g. gastroscopy
-spasm: sudden, involuntary contraction of muscle, e.g. vasospasm
-stasis: stop, control, standing, e.g. hemostasis
-stenosis: constriction, narrowing, e.g. ureterostenosis
-stomy: creation of artificial opening, e.g. nephrostomy
-thorax: chest cavity, chest, e.g. hemothorax
-tocia: labour, birth, e.g. dystocia
-tome: instrument used to cut, e.g. dermatome
-tomy: incision, cut into, e.g. laparotomy
-tripsy: surgical crushing, e.g. cholecystolithotripsy
-trophy: nourishment, development, e.g. hypertrophy
-um: no meaning, e.g. endocardium
-uria: urine, urination, e.g. nocturia
-us: no meaning, e.g. microcephalus
Exercises
A. Answer the following questions.
1. Define morphology.
2. What is morpheme?
3. What do you mean by free morpheme and bound morpheme? Give examples.
4. What is an affix?
5. What is an infix?
6. What is a stem?
7. What is a root?
B. Use the following morpheme in different words.
re, dis, un, sub, under, anti, auto, mega, out, poly, tri, vice, ate, ism, ry, less, able, cy, ive
