Schools of Criticism:

1. Romantic School of Criticism
2. Descriptive School of critiism
3. Historical criticism
4. Shakespeare Criticism

1. Plato (427 BC-348)
   1. He is the father of English criticism – John Drydan said
   2. Plato said that poetry/Any artistic thing should be instructed.
   3. Plato attacked poets like Homar and Hesoid on the ground that they misinterpreted the Gods and Showed them as revengeful, lustful, cruel and as waging war among themselves. Thus according to Plato poetry misrepresents, thus poets are immoral. Thus we live in an unreal world. Imitation of immitation. Artistic works are twice removed from reality.
   4. Works:
      1. Republic
         Symposium
         Laws
         Gorgias
         Phaedrus
2. Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC)
   1. Born at Stagira, Macedonia
   2. at the age 18, got admitted to Plato’s academy
   3. Expert in: politics, drama, physics, medicine, psychology, history, logic, astronomy, ethics, mathematics, rhetoric.
   4. Plato is said to have remarked that his academy consisted of two parts – the body of his students and the brain of Aristotle.
   5. King Philip employed Aristotle the tutor of Alexander.
   6. Established a school ‘the Lyceum’ in Athens, nicknamed ‘Peripatetic School’ meaning the school of strolling philosophers. To this day, the philosophy of Aristotle is known as the Peripatetic system.
   7. Aristotle wrote 400 books covering almost all the aspects of human knowledge and human activity.
   8. Aristotle counters Plato saying Poetry brings about a catharsis of emotions and thus provided a certain kind of pleasure to the reader.
   9. Works:
      1. Alexander
      2. The Custom of Barbarians
      3. organon or The Instrument of Correct thinking
      4. Logic
      5. Ethics
      6. Psysics
      7. Metamorphosis
      8. Poetics
         1. It was a reply to Plato
         2. Tries to define different kinds of poetry: Epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry
         3. According to Aristotle tragedy came from the efforts of poets to present men as nobler or better than they are in real life. Comedy shows the lower type of a person, shows human worse than average.
         4. Defines poetry as a medium of imitation. Imitate life through character, emotion, or action.
         5. Poetry/art must delight.
         6. Definition of Tragedy:
      9. Rhetorics
3. Longinus
   1. Works:
      1. On The Sublime
      2. First presented by Robertello, a modern critic in 1554
4. Horace
   1. Works:
      1. Ars Poetica:
         1. Written in 19 BC
         2. Written in apistle dedicated to Lucious Pissos, also called Apsitle to Pissos
         3. The title was given by Quintillien’s famous work Instauratio Oratorio meaning Arts of Poetry.
         4. Translated Ben Johnson, posthumosly published.
      2. Epistles(Three Books)
      3. Satires(Two Books)
         1. criticised the epiqurian way of living life.
      4. Odes(Four Books)
         1. Deal with wine, women, religion, happiness, sacrifice
         2. Lord Alfred Tennyson praised Horace.
      5. Terms
         1. Ab Ovo: Story can be started From the beginning
         2. In Medias Res: story can be started From the beginning
         3. Picura Poesis: Poetry and painting are same thing
         4. Decorum: Horace believed in Aristotle’s to work on writing: collection, selection and arrangement theory. Appropriateness of writing. great thought must match great expectations. T.S Eliot also used the concept calling it unification of sensibility.
         5. Poetic License: poets have a license to innovate new words.
         6. Purple Patch: Unnecessary literary figures/divices in one paragraph.
         7. Carpe Diem: Last day of your life, live it like that. Found in ‘To His Coy Mistress’
         8. Utile Dulci: Literature must be useful and delightable.
         9. Deus Ex Machina: Euripidies coined the term, god as a machine. He called god always in his story. Horace criticized his unnecessary calling of God.
         10. Delectando/Pariterque Monendo: Literature is written for Happiness and Pleasure

1. George Gascoigne
   1. Works:
      1. Notes of Instruction
         1. First appeared in his work: The Posies of George Gascoigne, corrected, perfected and augmented by the Author 1575
         2. Considered to be the first English manual of versification.
         3. These notes were written on the request of Master Eduardo Donati
         4. The work concerns ‘The making of verse or hyme in English’. It discusses English verse and meter.
         5. Michel Mack stated that the book is almost a “Handbook written by a poet for other poets, offering practical advice for keeping audience entertained.”
         6. **Gascoigne also emphasises ingenuity and invention as qualities of a good poet. A poem must reflect Originality and inventions.
2. William Webbe
   1. Works:
      1. Discourse of English Poetry Together with the Author’s Judgement Touching the Reformation of Our English Verse 1586
         1. The work was dedicated to his patron, Edward Sulyard.
         2. Webbe attempts a historical survey of poetry and also reviews poetry of his day.
         3. He abuses”This tinkerly verse, which we call hymn” as of barbarous origin and comments on the works of his contemporaries, expressing enthusiasm for Spenser’s Shepheard’s Calender and Phaer’s translation of Virgil.

1. John Dryden
2. Alexander Pope
3. Samuel Johnson
4. Thomas Hobbes
5. John Locke
6. Glambattista Vico
7. Edmund Burke
8. Edward Gibbon
9. Adam Smith

1. George Eliot
2. Friedrich Nietsche
3. G.M Hopkins
4. Henry James
5. Matthew Arnold
6. T.S Eliot
7. I.A Richards
8. Irving Babbit

1. The Republic – Plato
2. Book III
3. Book X
4. Poetics – Aristotle.
5. On the Sublime – Longinus
6. An Apology for Poetry – Sir Philip Sidney.
7. An Essay of Dramatic Poesy – John Dryden.
8. An Essay on Criticism – Alexander Pope
9. Biographia Literaria – S.T. Coleridge
10. Preface to Lyrical Ballads – William Wordsworth
11. The Study of Poetry – Mathew Arnold
12. Essays of T.S.Eliot
13. Death of the Author Who is an Author? – Michel Foucault
14. Structure, Sign and Play of Human Sciences – Jacques Darrida
15. The Formation of the Intellectuals – Antonio Gramsci
16. Resonance and Wonder (From Learning to Curse)- Stephen Greenblatt
17. Imagined Communities – Benedict Anderson
18. Cultural Identity and Diaspora (from Theorizing Diaspora)  – Stuart Hall
19. The Diasporic Imaginary: Theorizing the Indian Diaspora – Vijay Mishra
20. ‘Introduction’ to Orientalism – Edward Said
21. Can Subaltern Speak – Gayatri Chakraborty Spivak
22. The Wretched of the Earth – Frantz Fanon
23. Gender Trouble – Judith Butler
24. Literary Studies in an Age of Environmental Crisis (The Ecocriticism Reader)